Update 3

Methods to Genetically Modify Plants For Roundup Ready

Original Paragraphs:

Agrobacterium tumefaciens is a widespread naturally occurring soil bacterium that causes crown gall, and has the ability to introduce new genetic material into the plant cell. The genetic material that is introduced is called T DNA(transferred DNA) which is located on a Ti plasmid. A Ti plasmid is a circular piece of DNA found in almost all bacteria. 

Most A. tumefaciens infections in plants occur in wounds, like those that sometimes result from grafting together different plant stocks. Once in the plant cell, the bacterial DNA inserts randomly into the plant genome and leads to changes in the production of certain plant hormones. These, in turn, can lead to the growth of tumors, or galls, that weaken the plant and can be fatal. 

This natural ability to alter the plant’s genetic makeup was the foundation of plant transformation using Agrobacterium. Currently, Agrobacterium-mediated transformation is the most commonly used method for plant genetic engineering because of relatively high efficiency. Initially it was believed that this Agrobacterium only infects dicotyledonous plants, but it was later established that it can also be used for transformation of monocotyledonous plants such as rice.

Key Points:

• Agrobacterium Tumefaciens, also known as A.Tumefaciens, is a categorised as a type of bacteria, which can mutate the genetic components of plants when infected.
• They primarily cause a disease called Crown Gall but can also cause tumours which hurts the plants' metabolism.
• This bacteria can alter the gene of plants by random insertion of their own DNA strand into the plants' genome and these DNA material is called T DNA, an abbreviation for transferred DNA.
• However, due to technological advancement, this particular bacteria is also utilised by scientist to genetically modify plants and is considered as the most efficient method to do so.

Paraphrasing:

DNA transfer through A. Tumefaciens
http://www.nepadbiosafety.net/abne/wp-content/uploads/2010/10/agrobacterium.jpg

Agrobacterium Tumefaciens

The very first method of genetic modification is through the organism Agrobacterium Tumefaciens also known as A.Tumefaciens. It is categorised as a type of bacteria, which can mutate the genetic components of plants when infected by random insertion of their own DNA strand into the plants' genome and these DNA material is called T DNA, an abbreviation for transferred DNA. They primarily cause a disease called Crown Gall but can also cause tumours which hurts the plants' metabolism. However, due to technological advancement, this particular bacteria is also utilised by scientist to genetically modify plants and is considered as the most efficient method to do so. Scientists had been able to conduct large scale experiment regarding it. Firstly, they isolate the genetic material coding for the desired allele and may slightly modify its structure, codon or markers to ensure successful development of protein in the Agrobacterium Tumefaciens. Then it is inserted to the Ti Plasmid containing the T DNA, which will be inserted to the Agrobacterium Tumefaciens itself. Following this, is the exposure of specific plant cell to the A.Tumefaciens, allowing the transfer of DNA. This modified cells is then cultured and regenerated into a genetically modified plant.

Biolistics

Gene Gun
http://www.bio-rad.com/webroot/web/images/lsr/products/
gene_transfer_rnai/product_detail/global/lsr_gene_gun.jpg

Another method of genetically modifying crops into roundup ready is through a considerably old method called biolistics developed in the 1980s by John Stanford. In this method, DNA of plants are genetically modified by using high density gold or tungsten micro-particles. Before the insertion of these micro-particles into the designated plant cell using pressurised-helium-powered gene gun, it is previously coated with the DNA. The gene guns help the particles to travel in high velocity, allowing the particles to go through the cell walls and cell membranes with ease. The foremost benefit of this method of genetic engineering is that it is applicable to a broader range of plant tissues compared to the Agrobacterium Tumefaciens. It could also be utilised to transform only certain parts of the plant, for example the chloroplast and mitochondria exclusively.

Electroporation

Illustration of the electroporation process
http://oncosec.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/OMS_Poration_Graphic_Light.png

Electroporation is a process of genetic engineering wherein new DNA is incorporated in the nucleus of a cell. It is done by electrocuting the cell, disrupting the plasma membrane, making it  temporarily more porous and permeable. The electrocuted cell will be placed in a special solution with the DNA corresponding to the selected traits and when the cell plasma becomes penetrable, it will enter the cell membrane. Thereupon these cells will be cultured using a protein-rich solution and its success will be confirmed.

* Information from paraphrasing does not solely come from the source of 'original paragraphs'.

Bibliography:

"Agrobacterium Tumefaciens." Agrobacterium Tumefaciens. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Oct. 2014. <http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/pp728/Agrobacterium/Alyssa_Collins_profile.htm>.

"Plant Transformation Using Agrobacterium Tumefaciens - African Biosafety Network of Expertise (ABNE)." African Biosafety Network of Expertise ABNE. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Oct. 2014. <http://www.nepadbiosafety.net/subjects/biotechnology/plant-transformation-agro>.

"The Genome of Agrobacterium Tumefaciens." The Genome of Agrobacterium Tumefaciens. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Oct. 2014. <http://www.genomenewsnetwork.org/articles/12_01/A_tumefaciens_genome.shtml>.

"What Is Biolistics?" What Is Biolistics? N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Oct. 2014. <http://www.biotecharticles.com/Others-Article/What-is-Biolistics-522.html>.

"Risk Assessment Reference: Methods of Plant Genetic Modification." OGTR -. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Oct. 2014. <http://www.ogtr.gov.au/internet/ogtr/publishing.nsf/content/plant-modifications-ref-1-htm>.

"Result Filters." National Center for Biotechnology Information. U.S. National Library of Medicine, n.d. Web. 18 Oct. 2014. <http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23143483>.

"Untitled Document." Untitled Document. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Oct. 2014. <http://www.bio.davidson.edu/people/kabernd/seminar/2002/method/toran/paultmeth.html>.

McMahon, Mary, and O. Wallace. WiseGeek. Conjecture, 25 Sept. 2014. Web. 18 Oct. 2014. <http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-electroporation.htm>

Update 2

UPDATE 2: HOW GLYPHOSATE WORKS

Original Paragraphs: 

Glyphosate kills plants by obstructing the synthesis of the essential amino acids phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan. These amino acids are referred to as “essential” due to the fact that animals cannot make them; only plants and micro-organisms can make them and animals acquire them by consuming plants.

Plants and microorganisms make these amino acids with an enzyme that only plants and lower organisms contain, called 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate-synthase (EPSPS). EPSPS isn’t present in animals, which instead acquire aromatic amino acids from their diet.

Key Points:

• Glyphosate is the ingredient in herbicide that kills plants by terminating a group of amino acids (protein) which are essential to plants as only they can produce them. 
• These amino acids are : phenylalanine, tyrosine and tryptophan, which are produced by an enzyme called 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate-synthase or also known as EPSPS.

Paraphrasing:

Phenylalanine structure
http://www.nootropicmind.com/wp-content
/uploads/2014/09/L-phenylalanine.png

The herbicide, Roundup as had previously been discussed has the active ingredient called glyphosate which are capable of eradicating plants but however could not differentiate between crops and weed, hence making the genetic modification of crops crucial. These glyphosate terminates a strand or group of amino acids, coding for even larger structure of proteins which are indispensable in plants. It includes phenylalanine, tyrosine and tryptophan. All these interrelated amino acids are crucial not only for plants but also for animals and human beings who are incapable of producing it. 

Plant Stomata
http://www.psmicrographs.co.uk/_assets/uploads
/lavender-leaf-stomata-80200158-m.jpg

Phenylalanine are indeed very significant because it is the key to flavonoid biosynthesis in plants, which is basically the chemical conversion in plants to ensure its survival. This includes pigments, protection against UV/ sunlight, nutrition transportation and multitude other aspects. Tyrosine or also known as tyrosine phosphatases is involved in regulating plants' stomatal movement, or in other words regulating the exchange of internal and external objects/ chemicals such as carbon dioxide or oxygen. The last amino acid, tryptophan, like phenylalanine also develops into multitude metabolites and chemicals in plants, making it a prominent factor in plant growth/ development.

*Information from paraphrasing does not solely come from the source of 'original paragraphs'.

Bibliography:

"Roundup Ready Soybean." - Genetically Modified Organisms Reference Library. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Oct. 2014. <http://www.redorbit.com/education/reference_library/science_1/genetically_modified_organisms/1112964747/roundup-ready-soybean/>.

Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 15 Oct. 2014. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenylalanine#In_plants>.

Ferreyra, María L. Falcone, Sebastián P. Rius, and Paula Casati. "Abstract."National Center for Biotechnology Information. U.S. National Library of Medicine, 28 Sept. 2012. Web. 15 Oct. 2014. <http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3460232/>.

"Characterisation of the Tryptophan Synthase Alpha Subunit in Maize." BMC Plant Biology. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Oct. 2014. <http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2229/8/44>.

Sheng, Luan. "Tyrosine Phosphorylation in Plant Cell Signaling." Skip to Main Page Content Research on the Interactions between Natural and Social Systems, and with How Those Interactions Affect the Challenge of Sustainability. Science Sessions: The PNAS Podcast Program. Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, n.d. Web. 15 Oct. 2014. <http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pnas.org%2Fcontent%2F99%2F18%2F11567.full>.

"Stomata." Stomata. N.p., n.d. Web. 14 Oct. 2014. <http://www.eoearth.org/view/article/156262/>.

Update 1

GMO- Genetically Modified Organism

Difference between GM and non-GM tomatoes
http://www.drfranklipman.com/images/2012/10/GMO-Tomato.jpg

Genetically modified organisms is primarily a fancy term referring to living things that obtain traits that are artificially selected and hence does not occur naturally. Previously in the past scientist particularly, use the method artificial selection, which is basically selecting the parents of the offspring, hoping that the desired traits would be passed on, but however this method is unpredictable and chances of success is not very high. So instead of doing this, scientists nowadays genetically modify organisms by inserting new genes into another possibly unrelated species. This process indeed brought us a lot of benefit, but however also drawback, which arouses multitude issues too.

Non-GM and GM Corn
http://www.mi2g.com/images/gmo.jpg

As have been stated above, there are a variety of advantages through the application genetic modification. One of the most popular usage is in crop farming and livestock production, hence is in both plants and animals. In fact, GMO is so common that 50% of crops consumed in the United States are genetically altered. Currently this is a very common practice as it greatly increases the production rate by introducing genes that contributes to insect resistance and also herbicide tolerance. Furthermore, drugs could be induced in it, hence capable of curing diseases in some cases benefitting mankind medically. It is also capable of amplifying nutrient content in the product (both livestock and crops) and could also make plants resistant to environmental problems such as drought or cold weather. As for genetic modification in animals it could help strengthen immune system making the less likely to fall ill. It is also capable of increasing milk, meat and animal based product. Another less common application is to regain once extinct species by combining the genes of two different species and for research purpose solely.

However, with all these benefit there are also some drawbacks of GMO. One example is that there may be side effects to the organism itself because inserting new genes may not only affect the specific trait but also may effect its growth, metabolism and other factors. Plant growth may be uncontrollable due to this gene and this could obviously harm the surrounding environment. These complications often occur in organisms that are introduced to genes from totally unrelated species. Not only is it capable of causing an imbalance ecosystem, it could also affect human’s health detrimentally since we often consume these GMO. In the future, scientist could possibly prevent these side effects and also study on the long-term effect it poses to human when it is consumed.

Glow In The Dark GMO Pigs
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In addition, this method of improving livestock also contradicts many different socio-ethical beliefs and conceptions. The main concern is regarding animal welfare. Tampering with human gene is ethically incorrect but why is it that tampering with animal genes is not even though they are living things like us? This technology exploits animal to benefit us and in some cases even inflict pain or discomfort towards them making it a strong argument for those against this. For example modern pigs are genetically engineered to grow fast and so their heart size could not cope with it, making strenuous physical activities for pigs to be difficult. Furthermore, GMO is also said to cause health problems hence undeniably a social issue.  Lastly, religious issue is also another problem especially in religion wherein consumption of certain animals is not allowed. Phenotype-wise, it may seem to be one organism but if it is genetically modified then it may contain genes of the restricted organism. This process could also be defined as ‘tampering with god’s creation’ in some religion, making it religiously undesirable.

How Does Genetically Modified Plants Improve Herbicide Tolerance Using Roundup Ready Method?

What is Roundup Ready?

Original Paragraphs:

Roundup Ready crops are crops genetically modified to be resistant to the herbicide Roundup. Roundup is the brand-name of a herbicide produced by Monsanto. Its active ingredient glyphosate was patented in the 1970s. Roundup is widely used by both people in their backyards and farmers in their fields. Roundup Ready plants are resistant to Roundup, so farmers that plant these seeds must use Roundup to keep other weeds from growing in their fields.

The first Roundup Ready crops were developed in 1996, with the introduction of genetically modified soybeans that are resistant to Roundup. These crops were developed to help farmers control weeds. Because the new crops are resistant to Roundup, the herbicide can be used in the fields to eliminate unwanted foliage. Current Roundup Ready crops include soy, corn, canola, alfalfa, cotton, and sorghum, with wheat under development.

 Key Points:

•  Roundup is a herbicide brand produced by Monsanto containing the active ingredient of glyphosate.
• Roundup ready is a term utilised to describe crops that are genetically altered to be resistant to this particular herbicide.
• These crops are used to benefit farmers because they can easily eradicate unwanted weed or foliage.
• Examples of roundup ready crop: soybean, corn, canola, alfalfa, cotton and sorghum

Paraphrasing:

Roundup Herbicide
http://www.homehardware.ca/products/300/50487531.jpg

The phrase roundup ready originally derives from the herbicide product called Roundup by Monsanto, which contains the active ingredient called glyphosate. It basically describe crops that are genetically engineered to be resistant to that particular herbicide. This would obviously benefit the community particularly farmers who does agriculture for a living since they can now easily eradicate unwanted weed and plants. With this technology, growth rate of the particular plant would escalate because it would have all the nutrients from the soil to themselves, sunlight and water would also another factor. Meaning that the farmer could also obtain a more successful harvest. In 1996, the very first type of roundup ready crops is created and it is soybean. From then on, this method began to develop and today there are multitude types of genetically modified roundup ready crops available in market such as soy, corn, alfalfa, cotton and sorghum.

Bibliography:

BBC News. BBC, n.d. Web. 05 Oct. 2014. <http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/animals/using/biotechnology_1.shtml>.

"Transgenic Plants." ScienceDaily. ScienceDaily, n.d. Web. 07 Oct. 2014. <http://www.sciencedaily.com/articles/t/transgenic_plants.htm>.

"The Rise of Genetically Modified Crops, in Two Charts." Washington Post. The Washington Post, n.d. Web. 07 Oct. 2014. <http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/wonkblog/wp/2013/05/01/the-rise-of-genetically-modified-crops-in-two-charts/>.

Nature.com. Nature Publishing Group, n.d. Web. 05 Oct. 2014. <http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/genetically-modified-organisms-gmos-transgenic-crops-and-732>.

Diaz, Julia M. "GMOs in Medicine and Research." Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia Britannica, n.d. Web. 07 Oct. 2014. <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/897705/genetically-modified-organism-GMO/279978/GMOs-in-medicine-and-research>.

"Genetically Modified Animals." EFSA Topic:. N.p., n.d. Web. 06 Oct. 2014. <http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/topics/topic/gmanimals.htm>.

"Roundup Ready Crops." The Roundup Ready Controversy. N.p., n.d. Web. 07 Oct. 2014. <http://web.mit.edu/demoscience/Monsanto/about.html>.